1 General introduction
Cultural participation in Western liberal democracies 1
Positive and negative freedom 2
The emancipation dilemma 4
Essentially contested concepts 6
Task and method of political science 7
Structure of the discourse 10
2 Isaiah Berlin on positive and negative freedom
Introduction 13
Berlin’s philosophy 15
Epistemology and theory of science
Pluralism
Value relativism?
Positive and negative freedom 24
Introduction
Negative liberty
Positive liberty
Historical derailments of positive freedom
Necessary balancing of values
Some themes for discussion 34
Privacy, self-determination, self-management and self development
Inner impediments and higher goals
Positive freedom and rationalism
Freedom as a state or as an experience
Superhuman coercion: social structures
Paternalism
3 Freedom of the individual
Introduction 46
The interpretation of fundamentally disputed concepts
Frithjof Bergmann: the necessity of an identity 49
Identification as a condition of freedom
The definition of identity
Some comments
Harry Frankfurt and the essence of man: second-order goals 53
Charles Taylor: qualitative evaluation, identity and the Good Life 55
Strong evaluation and identity
Life as a single narrative
Articulation of the Good
The limitations of the negative conception of freedom
The inadequacy of the current culture of authenticity
Some comments
Robert Young: life plan 66
Benjamin Barber: intentionalism 67
Two models of freedom
Three forms of coercion
Freedom due to suppression of non-intentional behaviour
Freedom as struggle and regret
Provisional conclusions 71
Bruno Bettelheim: integrity and willpower 73
S.I.Benn: autharchy or broadmindedness 75
Richard Lindley: active theoretical rationality 76
John Benson: the courage to be free and to trust in others 77
Gerard Dworkin: qualifying moral originality 78
Joel Feinberg: the need for a starting-point and the right centre 79
Final conclusions 81
Once again: negative and positive freedom
4 Freedom and society
Introduction 85
Absence of constraints and/or presence of opportunities 86
Freedom as a triadic relation
Positive freedom: distinguishing a larger number of constraints
The theory-laden definition of obstacles and possibilities
Balance
Crawford Brough MacPherson: the right to (conditions of) freedom 94
Self-realization, democracy and scarcity
The connection between freedom and its conditions
Contradictions between, and perversions of, freedoms
Discussion
Steven Lukes: the social conditions of individualism 103
Three elements of freedom
True respect for the individual
Abstract conception of the individual
Charles Taylor: critique of atomism 107
The impossible self-sufficiency of the individual
Duties to society
Frithjof Bergmann: identification within the community 110
Discussion 112
Enculturation
Open-ended self-development
The value of isolation
Richard Norman: freedom and equality 116
Negative and positive conditions of freedom
Equality as a natural value within a cooperative
Equality as the promotion of egalitarian social conditions
Conditions of equality
Freedom and equality as harmonious values
Balance 122
The democratic community versus liberal politics
Freedom and the number of options: a proportional relation?
The distinction between freedom and its conditions
Right to the conditions of freedom?
The inevitability of notions of common sense
5 Emancipation and paternalism
Introduction 136
On power and “real interests” 137
Dahl, Bachrach & Baratz and Lukes on conceptions of power
Lukes and Connolly on “real” interests
Problems of the radical conception
Structural determination or exercise of power
Smith: the incontestability of “real” interests 146
Ted Benton’s emancipation paradox 149
Richard Lindley on dilemmas 151
Intermediary conclusions 154
Paternalism: some definitions and distinctions 158
John Stuart Mill’s liberty principle 160
Joel Feinberg: paternalism and voluntariness 163
Gerald Dworkin: paternalism and rationality 163
Rosemary Carter: paternalism and consent 165
Donald VanDeVeer: against rationality and voluntariness 166
John Kleinig: paternalism guarantee of autonomy 168
Conclusions 170
6 Final balance and synthesis: freedom and cultural politics
Introduction 176
Positive and negative freedom 176
The emancipation dilemma 182
Paternalism and rationalism 185
Culture and autonomy 189
The burdens and benefits of freedom: autonomy or happiness? 193
More reasons to promote the dissemination of culture and autonomy 198
7 Cultural policy
Introduction 202
Cultural dissemination as policy objective 203
Historic motives
Converging policy traditions.
Social inequality in cultural participation 208
Trends in participation in cultural activities 210
Reading books, journals and newspapers
The rise of television viewing
Discussion: typographic versus electronic culture
Attendance for performing arts
Visiting museums
Receptive cultural participation at home and on the street
Amateur art performance
The elevation of the concept of art to “culture”
Balance
Determinants of cultural participation 231
Available time
Available financial resources
Cultural competence
Acquiring status and the drive to distinction
Balance
Cultural policy in practice 236
Incrementalism
The emphasis on the supply of facilities
Explanations of the one-sided emphasis on supply policy 243
Introduction
Incrementalism: short-term thinking and the influence of interested parties
Faith in spontaneous self-development
Individualization as self-realisation
Cultural relativism
Cultural politics within the culture of authenticity 247
The concept of democracy
The concept of culture
Additional critique of the status theory
Towards a policy of cultural dissemination or demand 263
Introduction
The development of a normative cultural political framework
The social context: work and leisure
Cultural education
Media policy
The narrowing of the gap between professionals and laymen
Linking up with mass culture
Amateur art performance
Involving social organizations
Evoking the drive to distinction
Architecture and design
8 Epilogue
Notes 277
Bibliography: Freedom and autonomy 296
Bibliography: Arts and culture 304
Name index 311
Subject index 315